Gasoline, Gasoline-Electric, Price and Transportation

Large differences among the recent increases in the cost of powering gasoline, diesel, and electric vehicles

Green Car Congress

JUNE 2, 2022

This post examines the recent changes in the costs of powering gasoline, diesel, and electric vehicles. The expectation was that the cost of electricity had recently increased much less than the costs of gasoline and diesel. The reason is that, in the United States, oil is used to generate less than 1% of electricity.

Gasoline-Electric

Gasoline-Electric Gasoline Cost Of Diesel

Report suggests low-speed electric vehicles could affect Chinese demand for gasoline and disrupt oil prices worldwide

Green Car Congress

MAY 22, 2019

Low-speed electric vehicles (LSEVs) could reduce China’s demand for gasoline and, in turn, impact global oil prices, according to a new issue brief by an expert in the Center for Energy Studies at Rice University’s Baker Institute for Public Policy. “ —Gabriel Collins.

Oil Prices

Oil Prices Gasoline-Electric Gasoline Oil

Prometheus CEO outlines tech advances that could make CO2-to-fuels renewable gasoline and jet price-competitive with fossil fuels

Green Car Congress

JANUARY 30, 2020

In a commentary in the journal Joule , Rob McGinnis, founder and and CEO of Prometheus , a company that is developing technology to remove carbon dioxide from the air and turn it into fuels, discusses the technology advances that could lead to the potential price-competitiveness of renewable gasoline and jet with fossil fuels.

Gasoline

Gasoline Renewable Fuel Price

BNEF: net-zero road transport by 2050 still possible, but big push needed

Green Car Congress

JUNE 2, 2022

The road transport sector could still reach net-zero emissions by 2050 through electrification, but urgent action would be required from policymakers and industry participants, according to research company BloombergNEF’s (BNEF) latest annual Long-Term Electric Vehicle Outlook (EVO). million sold in 2021 to 21 million in 2025.

Transportation

Transportation Emissions Fleet Economy

CARB publishes 2020 CI values for electricity as transportation fuel: average 82.92 gCO2e/MJ, up from 2019

Green Car Congress

MARCH 10, 2020

The California Air Resources Board (CARB) Executive Officer has certified the 2020 annual update to the carbon intensities (CI) of the lookup table pathways for a) California Average Grid Electricity Used as a Transportation Fuel in California and b) Electricity Supplied under the Smart Charging or Smart Electrolysis Provision.

2020

2020 2019 Transportation Fuel

3.8% drop in EU’s greenhouse gas emissions in 2019; transport emissions rise

Green Car Congress

JUNE 1, 2021

Increasing carbon prices and gas becoming relatively cheaper compared with coal led to a significant reduction in coal use, in favor of gas and renewable energy sources. However, CO 2 emissions from the transport sector continued their increasing trend in 2019.

2019

2019 Emissions Transportation Gas

Analysis finds annual running cost of EVs less than ICE; but with purchase price factored in, it flips

Green Car Congress

OCTOBER 9, 2020

Self Financial, a fintech company, has compared the running costs of electric and non-electric vehicles in each state. Across the US the average annual cost of running an electric vehicle is $2,721.96, while gasoline vehicles cost an average of $3,355.90 per year to run—a difference of $633.94

Purchase

Purchase Cost Of Price Gasoline-Electric

Gasoline prices are spiking. Electric vehicle drivers are saving.

Green Energy Consumers

NOVEMBER 12, 2021

It’s all over the news: gas prices have hit a seven-year high. But the largest factor driving petroleum prices is simply supply and demand. Depending on your political beliefs, you might blame inflation or the president.

Gasoline-Electric

Gasoline-Electric Price Gasoline Electric Vehicles

Study suggests China urban passenger transport emissions could peak in 2030

Green Car Congress

AUGUST 9, 2019

A team of researchers in China suggest that, in the context of promoting the use of clean fuel vehicles and increasing vehicle fuel efficiency, CO 2 emissions of China’s urban passenger transport sector could reach a peak of 225 MtCO 2 in 2030. A paper on their study appears in the journal Energy Policy.

Transportation

Transportation Emissions China Taxi

The National Average Cost of Fuel for an Electric Vehicle is about 60% Less than for a Gasoline Vehicle

EV Obssesion

MAY 17, 2021

Vehicle Technologies Office Transportation Analysis Fact of the Week #1186 Electric vehicles are more efficient than internal combustion vehicles, but fuel cost comparisons can be complicated due to differences in the units of measure. The eGallon represents the cost of driving an electric vehicle (EV) […].

Gasoline-Electric

Gasoline-Electric Cost Of Gasoline Electric Vehicles

Cordon Zone Pricing: An Essential Tool for a Better Transportation Future

Energy Institute at HAAS

NOVEMBER 15, 2021

Source: Wikimedia Autumn means different things to different people—for some it’s the changing leaves, for others it’s college football, or decorative gourds, … Continue Reading Cordon Zone Pricing: An Essential Tool for a Better Transportation Future.

Transportation

Transportation Future Price Gasoline-Electric

EEA: Walking, cycling and public transport in cities remain greener mobility options than electric scooters or car ride-hailing

Green Car Congress

FEBRUARY 4, 2020

A new report by the European Environment Agency (EEA) finds that, taken together with public transport, walking and cycling for short city journeys provide the greatest benefits for both human health and the environment in urban areas. A simple example would be a short trip by electric kick scooter.

Transportation

Transportation Environment 2018 Cars

Study finds São Paulo switch from ethanol to gasoline dropped local ozone levels by 20%, increased CO and nitric oxide concentrations

Green Car Congress

APRIL 29, 2014

A study by a pair of researchers at Northwestern University found that when fuel prices drove residents of São Paulo, Brazil, to switch from ethanol to gasoline in their flexible-fuel vehicles, local ozone levels dropped 20%. Electricity generation is mostly hydroelectric. The four-year study by chemist Franz M.

Ozone

Ozone Gasoline Pollution Gasoline-Electric

EIA STEO projects higher US crude production, increases in travel and gasoline demand

Green Car Congress

APRIL 11, 2017

For summer 2017, EIA forecasts motor gasoline consumption to average 9.5 EIA expects that domestic refinery production, including gasoline blendstock output, will be about 20,000 b/d lower this summer than last summer. of total gasoline consumption. For all of 2017, the forecast average price for regular gasoline is $2.39/gal,

Gasoline

Gasoline Gasoline-Electric Production Oil

Study finds EVs are traveling less than half the US fleet average

Green Car Congress

FEBRUARY 9, 2021

New data suggests that electric vehicles may not be an easy future substitute for the gasoline-powered fleet, as EVs currently travel less than half as much as the US fleet average. They found that the arrival of an EV in a household increases household electricity consumption by 2.9

Fleet

Fleet Davis Gasoline-Electric Chicago

SoCalGas reduces CNG price by $0.26 per gallon at its fueling stations by using LCFS credits

Green Car Congress

MARCH 27, 2019

SoCalGas) will lower the price of compressed natural gas at all of its 13 public access natural gas vehicle fueling stations by $0.26 The LCFS program is administered by the California Air Resources Board and seeks to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from transportation fuels by 20% through 2030. Southern California Gas Co.

Price

Price Fuel Gas Gas-Electric

The Impact of Gas Price Trends on Vehicle Choice

Clean Fleet Report

SEPTEMBER 17, 2022

When gas prices are on the rise, it had a big impact on the type of vehicles that people were buying. But for many people, one of the most important considerations is the cost of gasoline. With gas prices always fluctuating, it can be difficult to predict how much you’ll need to spend on fuel each month.

Gas

Gas Price Vehicles Gas-Electric

EIA projects decline in transportation sector energy consumption through 2037 despite increase in VMT, followed by increase

Green Car Congress

JANUARY 28, 2019

EIA’s Annual Energy Outlook 2019 projects continued robust growth in US energy production, emergence of the United States as an energy exporter, and a cleaner S electric power generation mix. This growth arises from increases in air transportation outpacing increases in aircraft fuel efficiency. Other findings.

Transportation

Transportation Energy Fuel Economy 2018

California 2017 GHG inventory shows 1.2% total drop from 2016; transportation sector emissions up 1%

Green Car Congress

AUGUST 14, 2019

The transportation sector remains the largest source of GHG emissions in the state, and saw a 1% increase in emissions in 2017. Transportation sector emission sources include combustion of fuels utilized in-state that are used by on-road and off-road vehicles, aviation, rail, and water-borne vehicles, as well as a few other smaller sources.

2017

2017 2016 Transportation Emissions

Average Price for Residential Electricity Less Than 15¢/kWh In 2021 In Most US States

CleanTechnica EVs

JUNE 27, 2022

As consumers begin to transition from gasoline vehicles to electric vehicles (EVs), the price of electricity is becoming a new area of focus for motorists.

District of Columbia

District of Columbia Price Gasoline-Electric Gasoline

Deutsche Bank Forecast sees slower transportation electrification and greater gasoline demand near-term; increased confidence in the pace and breadth of long-term shift to efficient transportation systems

Green Car Congress

JANUARY 1, 2011

” Their analysis is in the context of the “ surprising [oil] demand strength of 2010 “; 2010 saw absolute incremental demand at around 2.2mb/d of growth—the second highest in 30 years, despite oil prices in the $90/bbl region. gallon gasoline. Click to enlarge. CAGR from 2012 through 2020 to about $250/kWh.

Transportation

Transportation Gasoline Lithium Ion Gasoline-Electric

UK to invest £200M in fleet of zero-emission heavy-duty trucks

Green Car Congress

MAY 14, 2022

UK Transport Minister Trudy Harrison announced more than £200 million (US$244 million) of government funding will be injected into an extensive zero-emission road freight demonstrator program. —Transport Minister Trudy Harrison. This will begin with demonstrations of battery electric and hydrogen fuel cell heavy-duty trucks.

Emissions

Emissions Fleet Hydrogen Gasoline-Electric

NC proposes one of US’ most anti-EV bills yet–No free EV charging unless free gasoline or diesel is offered too

Teslarati

JUNE 8, 2022

The proposal, titled “Equitable Free Vehicle Fuel Stations,” sets its sights on electric vehicle charging stations. wants to remove free electric charging stations in NC. The bill would provide DOT with $50k to REMOVE electric charging stations & ban EV charging on government property unless they also offer free gasoline or diesel.

Gasoline

Gasoline Diesel Charging Gasoline-Electric

EIA: US energy-related CO2 dropped 2.7% in 2015; of end-use sectors, only transportation increased

Green Car Congress

MARCH 27, 2017

Of the four end-use sectors, only transportation emissions increased in 2015 (+2.1%). Specific circumstances, such as the very warm fourth quarter of 2015 and relatively low natural gas prices, put downward pressure on emissions as natural gas was substituted for coal in electricity generation. Electricity.

2015

2015 Transportation CO2 Energy

Emissions Analytics argues that current Pareto-efficient solution for decarbonization would be hybrids, not BEVs, based on do-no-harm

Green Car Congress

MARCH 22, 2023

On this basis, and of Pareto efficiency, Emissions Analytics argues, until battery-electric vehicles can reach certain performance characteristics, government and industry support should switch immediately from EVs to full hybrids to create maximum welfare. Every air pollutant is more than 90% its limit. —Emissions Analytics

Emissions

Emissions Hybrid Kia Gasoline-Electric

Argonne updates GREET and AFLEET tools for transportation technologies analysis

Green Car Congress

OCTOBER 11, 2017

The 2017 release of the suite of GREET (Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation) models and associated documentation includes the following expansions and updates: Added plastic-to-fuel (PTF) pathway. Implemented new pathways for fuel cell electric medium- and heavy-duty vehicles powered by gaseous hydrogen.

Transportation

Transportation Pollution Alternative Fuels Gasoline-Electric

EIA: US energy-related CO2 emissions down 1.7% in 2016; carbon intensity of economy down 3.1%; transportation emissions up

Green Car Congress

OCTOBER 6, 2017

The natural gas share of electricity generation has grown as the coal share declined, partially offsetting the decline in energy-related CO 2 emissions from coal. Of the four end‐use sectors, only transportation CO 2 emissions increased in 2016. Since the late 1990s, the transportation sector has produced the most CO2 emissions.

2016

2016 CO2 Emissions Transportation

Rhodium Group estimates US GHG emissions rose 1.3% in 2022

Green Car Congress

JANUARY 11, 2023

Despite efforts to continue stimulating the US economy in the wake of the pandemic, high inflation put a damper on economic growth, which was exacerbated by a spike in oil prices as a result of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. Little change in transportation and industry. Consequently, the US economy grew 1.9% in 2022, down from a 5.7%

Emissions

Emissions Oil Prices 2005 Coal

T&E concludes that diesel cars emit more CO2 on a full lifecycle basis than gasoline cars

Green Car Congress

SEPTEMBER 18, 2017

A new analysis by the NGO Transport & Environment (T&E) concludes that diesel cars emit more CO 2 than equivalent cars on a full lifecycle basis—i.e., The average diesel car is driven longer, however, only 4% of this is due to the lower fuel price (rebound effect). l/100 km (37.3 mpg US) and 7.1 l/100 km (33.1

Gasoline

Gasoline Diesel CO2 Cars

Responsible Battery Coalition and U Michigan launch study to compare electric and gas vehicle lifetime costs

Green Car Congress

OCTOBER 31, 2022

The Responsible Battery Coalition, in partnership with the University of Michigan Center for Sustainable Systems, launched a comprehensive research project to compare the total cost of ownership of gas and electric vehicles (EVs). Projections of future gasoline and electricity prices. Anticipated driving patterns.

Michigan

Michigan Gas-Electric Gas Batteries

DOE updates eGallon prices; Sec’y Moniz highlights growth of PEV sales

Green Car Congress

JULY 19, 2013

Ernest Moniz highlighted the continued growth of plug-in electric vehicle (PEV)sales—more than doubling in the first 6 months of 2013 to 40,000 units compared to the same period in 2012—as the US Department of Energy (DOE) released its most recent pricing data showing the low cost of fueling on electricity.

Price

Price District of Columbia Sale Gasoline-Electric

EPA: US GHG fell 0.5% y-o-y in 2017; power sector down by 4.2%, transportation up 1.21%

Green Car Congress

APRIL 15, 2019

This decrease was largely driven by a decrease in emissions from fossil fuel combustion, which was a result of multiple factors including a continued shift from coal to natural gas and increased use of renewables in the electric power sector, and milder weather that contributed to less overall electricity use.

2017

2017 EPA Transportation 2005

ICCT: decline in diesel sales will have negligible impact on attainment of European CO2 emission standards

Green Car Congress

MARCH 19, 2018

The current decline is ales of diesel light duty vehicle in Europe does not put EU CO 2 targets out of reach of automakers, according to a new analysis by the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT). In addition, vehicle manufacturers increasingly use electric motors to complement conventional combustion engines in cars.

Diesel

Diesel CO2 Standards Emissions

Navigant forecasts global road transportation energy consumption to increase 25% by 2035; 84% from conventional fuels

Green Car Congress

JULY 28, 2014

In a new report ( Transportation Forecast: Global Fuel Consumption ), Navigant Research forecasts total road transportation energy consumption will grow from 81.1 The United States is currently the largest consumer of energy in the road transportation sector, with nearly 23.1 quadrillion Btu in 2014 to 101.7 Click to enlarge.

Transportation

Transportation Global Fuel Alternative Fuels

ARPA-E Battery/Storage Exposition 14 Jan

Green Car Congress

JANUARY 1, 2021

BEEST (Batteries for Electrical Energy Storage in Transportation). The projects in BEEST sought to develop a variety of rechargeable battery technologies that would enable EV/PHEVs to meet or beat the price and performance of gasoline-powered cars, and enable mass production of electric vehicles that people will be excited to drive.

Batteries

Batteries Battery Energy Storage Grid

BNEF: Oil price plunge to have only moderate impact on low-carbon electricity development, but likely to slow EV growth

Green Car Congress

DECEMBER 22, 2014

The collapse in world oil prices in the second half of 2014 will have only a moderate impact on the fast-developing low-carbon transition in the world electricity system, according to research firm Bloomberg New Energy Finance. However, the slump in the Brent crude price per barrel from $112.36 on 30 June to $61.60

Oil Prices

Oil Prices Oil Price Carbon

Harris AutoTECHCAST Study Finds US Vehicle Owners Currently Would Choose Lower-cost, Higher Fuel Economy Gasoline-Engined Vehicles Over Higher-Priced Alt Fuel Engines or Electric Vehicles

Green Car Congress

MAY 29, 2010

According to Harris Interactive’s 2010 AutoTECHCAST study, conducted between 6-26 April 2010, there is currently greater demand among US vehicle owners for technologies that deliver improved fuel economy of existing gasoline-driven engines at a lower initial cost, rather than for higher-priced alternative-fueled engines. Pure Electric.

Fuel Economy

Fuel Economy Gasoline-Electric Engine Fuel

Tsinghua/Argonne Study Finds That Mass Use of EVs in China Could Result in Higher CO2 and Criteria Pollutant Emissions Than Conventional and Hybrid Gasoline Vehicles Due to Coal-Fired Generation of Electricity

Green Car Congress

MAY 25, 2010

Fuel-cycle SO 2 emissions of EVs compared to those of gasoline ICEVs and HEVs in China, current (left) and future (right). The study examined the fuel-cycle CO 2 , SO 2 , and NO x emissions of EVs in China in both current (2008) and future (2030) periods and compared them with those of conventional gasoline vehicles and gasoline hybrids.

Coal

Coal Gasoline-Electric Gasoline Pollution

Toyota and partners launching Cité lib by Ha:mo EV car sharing in Grenoble; ultracompact EVs complementing public transport

Green Car Congress

SEPTEMBER 13, 2014

The City of Grenoble, France, its metropolitan area Grenoble-Alpes Metropole, EDF and its affiliate Sodetrel, Toyota Motor Corporation and Cité lib officially launched the new “Cité lib by Ha:mo” electric vehicle car-sharing service. Earlier post.). Toyota is providing 35 Toyota i-ROAD EVs, the largest number in service in the world.

Toyota

Toyota Transportation France Cars

MIT and IEA reports take different views of the future of natural gas in transportation

Green Car Congress

JUNE 10, 2011

Although the reports both focus strongly on the increased use of natural gas in power generation, they also explore the likely impact of increased natural gas use on transportation. The MIT report, which is focused on the US, albeit within a global context, concludes that natural gas use in the transportation sector is likely to increase.

MIT

MIT Gas Transportation Future

Rice study finds using natural gas for electricity and heating, not transportation, more effective in reducing GHGs

Green Car Congress

MARCH 9, 2016

The use of compressed natural gas in vehicles yielded the least benefit, essentially matching the emissions of modern gasoline or diesel engines. Three direct substitution studies all showed far more favorable net impacts for replacing coal-fired electricity than for replacing gasoline or diesel vehicles.

Gas-Electric

Gas-Electric Gas Transportation Coal

Former president of Shell Oil calls for aggressive action on alternative fuels to break oil monopoly on transportation

Green Car Congress

APRIL 30, 2013

Fuel Freedom is a non-partisan, non-profit organization dedicated to opening the fuel market to allow alternative fuels such as ethanol, methanol, natural gas and electricity fairly to compete with gasoline at the pump. Competition will drive transportation fuel prices down, structurally and sustainably.

Alternative Fuels

Alternative Fuels Oil Transportation Fuel

Congressional Budget Office estimates US federal policies promoting EVs and other fuel-efficient vehicles will cost $7.5B through 2019; little or no impact on gasoline use and GHG in the short term

Green Car Congress

SEPTEMBER 21, 2012

Tax credits and gasoline prices necessary for various electric vehicles to be cost-competitive with conventional vehicles at 2011 vehicle prices. The electric vehicles that are the focus of this study fall into two broad classes: plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and battery-electric vehicles.

Tax Credit

Tax Credit Gasoline Tax Gasoline-Electric

PNNL/INL team assesses costs and GHG LCA for converting biomass to drop-in fuels via fast pyrolysis and upgrading

Green Car Congress

SEPTEMBER 23, 2019

A team from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) and Idaho National Laboratory has evaluated the process economics and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for the conversion of 11 biomass feedstocks to produce transportation fuels via fast pyrolysis and then pyrolysis oil upgrading via hydrodeoxygenation. g CO 2 -e/MJ. Meyer et al.

Fuel

Fuel Convert Idaho Oil

Large differences among the recent increases in the cost of powering gasoline, diesel, and electric vehicles

Report suggests low-speed electric vehicles could affect Chinese demand for gasoline and disrupt oil prices worldwide

Prometheus CEO outlines tech advances that could make CO2-to-fuels renewable gasoline and jet price-competitive with fossil fuels

BNEF: net-zero road transport by 2050 still possible, but big push needed

CARB publishes 2020 CI values for electricity as transportation fuel: average 82.92 gCO2e/MJ, up from 2019

3.8% drop in EU’s greenhouse gas emissions in 2019; transport emissions rise

Analysis finds annual running cost of EVs less than ICE; but with purchase price factored in, it flips

Gasoline prices are spiking. Electric vehicle drivers are saving.

Study suggests China urban passenger transport emissions could peak in 2030

The National Average Cost of Fuel for an Electric Vehicle is about 60% Less than for a Gasoline Vehicle

Cordon Zone Pricing: An Essential Tool for a Better Transportation Future

EEA: Walking, cycling and public transport in cities remain greener mobility options than electric scooters or car ride-hailing

Study finds São Paulo switch from ethanol to gasoline dropped local ozone levels by 20%, increased CO and nitric oxide concentrations

EIA STEO projects higher US crude production, increases in travel and gasoline demand

Study finds EVs are traveling less than half the US fleet average

SoCalGas reduces CNG price by $0.26 per gallon at its fueling stations by using LCFS credits

The Impact of Gas Price Trends on Vehicle Choice

EIA projects decline in transportation sector energy consumption through 2037 despite increase in VMT, followed by increase

California 2017 GHG inventory shows 1.2% total drop from 2016; transportation sector emissions up 1%

Average Price for Residential Electricity Less Than 15¢/kWh In 2021 In Most US States

Deutsche Bank Forecast sees slower transportation electrification and greater gasoline demand near-term; increased confidence in the pace and breadth of long-term shift to efficient transportation systems

UK to invest £200M in fleet of zero-emission heavy-duty trucks

NC proposes one of US’ most anti-EV bills yet–No free EV charging unless free gasoline or diesel is offered too

EIA: US energy-related CO2 dropped 2.7% in 2015; of end-use sectors, only transportation increased

Emissions Analytics argues that current Pareto-efficient solution for decarbonization would be hybrids, not BEVs, based on do-no-harm

Argonne updates GREET and AFLEET tools for transportation technologies analysis

EIA: US energy-related CO2 emissions down 1.7% in 2016; carbon intensity of economy down 3.1%; transportation emissions up

Rhodium Group estimates US GHG emissions rose 1.3% in 2022

T&E concludes that diesel cars emit more CO2 on a full lifecycle basis than gasoline cars

Responsible Battery Coalition and U Michigan launch study to compare electric and gas vehicle lifetime costs

DOE updates eGallon prices; Sec’y Moniz highlights growth of PEV sales

EPA: US GHG fell 0.5% y-o-y in 2017; power sector down by 4.2%, transportation up 1.21%

ICCT: decline in diesel sales will have negligible impact on attainment of European CO2 emission standards

Navigant forecasts global road transportation energy consumption to increase 25% by 2035; 84% from conventional fuels

ARPA-E Battery/Storage Exposition 14 Jan

BNEF: Oil price plunge to have only moderate impact on low-carbon electricity development, but likely to slow EV growth

Harris AutoTECHCAST Study Finds US Vehicle Owners Currently Would Choose Lower-cost, Higher Fuel Economy Gasoline-Engined Vehicles Over Higher-Priced Alt Fuel Engines or Electric Vehicles

Tsinghua/Argonne Study Finds That Mass Use of EVs in China Could Result in Higher CO2 and Criteria Pollutant Emissions Than Conventional and Hybrid Gasoline Vehicles Due to Coal-Fired Generation of Electricity

Toyota and partners launching Cité lib by Ha:mo EV car sharing in Grenoble; ultracompact EVs complementing public transport

MIT and IEA reports take different views of the future of natural gas in transportation

Rice study finds using natural gas for electricity and heating, not transportation, more effective in reducing GHGs

Former president of Shell Oil calls for aggressive action on alternative fuels to break oil monopoly on transportation

Congressional Budget Office estimates US federal policies promoting EVs and other fuel-efficient vehicles will cost $7.5B through 2019; little or no impact on gasoline use and GHG in the short term

PNNL/INL team assesses costs and GHG LCA for converting biomass to drop-in fuels via fast pyrolysis and upgrading

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