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PNNL study outlines requirements for grid storage, reviews four electrochemical energy storage systems: vanadium redox flow, Na-beta, Li-ion and lead-carbon

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Classification of potential electrical storage for stationary applications. In addition to outlining requirements for ESS and general guidelines for investigating technologies, the paper by Yang et al., Carrying charges, operation and maintenances (O&M), and replacement costs are not included. Credit: ACS, Yang et al.

Li-ion 231