Climate, Comparison, Gasoline-Electric and Transportation

EEA report: EVs are better for climate and air quality

Green Car Congress

NOVEMBER 26, 2018

Battery electric cars emit less greenhouse gases and air pollutants over their entire life cycle than petrol and diesel cars, according to a European Environment Agency (EEA) report. Emissions are usually higher in the production phase of electric cars, but these are more than offset by lower emissions in the use phase over time.

Climate

Climate Pollution Gasoline-Electric 2017

ICCT LCA study finds only battery and hydrogen fuel-cell EVs have potential to be very low-GHG passenger vehicle pathways

Green Car Congress

JULY 21, 2021

In addition to its regional and temporal scope, this study is distinct from earlier LCA literature in four key aspects: This study considers the lifetime average carbon intensity of the fuel and electricity mixes, including biofuels and biogas. Source: The ICCT.

Hydrogen

Hydrogen Fuel Batteries Battery

Responsible Battery Coalition and U Michigan launch study to compare electric and gas vehicle lifetime costs

Green Car Congress

OCTOBER 31, 2022

The Responsible Battery Coalition, in partnership with the University of Michigan Center for Sustainable Systems, launched a comprehensive research project to compare the total cost of ownership of gas and electric vehicles (EVs). Projections of future gasoline and electricity prices. Anticipated driving patterns.

Michigan

Michigan Gas-Electric Gas Batteries

Emissions Analytics argues that current Pareto-efficient solution for decarbonization would be hybrids, not BEVs, based on do-no-harm

Green Car Congress

MARCH 22, 2023

On this basis, and of Pareto efficiency, Emissions Analytics argues, until battery-electric vehicles can reach certain performance characteristics, government and industry support should switch immediately from EVs to full hybrids to create maximum welfare. The test cycle was made up of five repeats of the EQUA cycle, totalling 741 km.

Emissions

Emissions Hybrid Kia Gasoline-Electric

Study finds GHG emissions from corn ethanol now 46% lower than gasoline

Green Car Congress

JANUARY 27, 2021

A new study by a team from Environmental Health & Engineering (EH&E) has found that greenhouse gas emissions from corn ethanol are 46% lower than those from gasoline—a decrease in emissions from the estimated 39% done by previous modeling. gCO 2 e/MJ) which is 46% lower than the average carbon intensity for neat gasoline.

Gasoline

Gasoline Emissions Gasoline-Electric Gas-Electric

Rice study finds using natural gas for electricity and heating, not transportation, more effective in reducing GHGs

Green Car Congress

MARCH 9, 2016

Rice University researchers have determined a more effective way to use natural gas to reduce climate-warming emissions would be in the replacement of existing coal-fired power plants and fuel-oil furnaces rather than burning it in cars and buses. However, residential uses and exports of natural gas were not considered in those comparisons.

Gas-Electric

Gas-Electric Gas Transportation Coal

Ninth annual Green Innovation Index finds California light-duty vehicle emissions spike; major challenge to 2030 climate goals

Green Car Congress

AUGUST 22, 2017

However, although the state has made considerable progress decoupling economic growth from greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the rate of emissions decline appears to be slowing, due in part to a spike in transportation emissions attributed to an increase from light-duty vehicles. Transportation. in emissions from on-road vehicles.

California

California Light Emissions Climate

EPA annual inventory shows US GHG up 3.1% from 2017-2018

Green Car Congress

APRIL 14, 2020

This increase was largely driven by an increase in emissions from fossil fuel combustion, which was a result of multiple factors, including more electricity use greater due to greater heating and cooling needs due to a colder winter and hotter summer in 2018 in comparison to 2017. Transportation sector. Source: EPA. >.

2018

2018 2017 EPA 2005

PSI team develops web tool for consumers to compare environmental impact of passenger cars in detail

Green Car Congress

MAY 17, 2020

The system will graph lifecycle impact for a range of specified powertrains, for a large number of impact categories: Climate change [kg CO 2 -eq.]. The top sample above shows climate change impact; the subsequent chart shows human toxicity. Sample results from Carculator. Depletion of fossil energy resources [kg oil-eq.].

Mariner

Mariner Climate Change DC Cars

DeCicco: Transportation GHG reduction policy should focus upstream on fuel supply rather than downstream on choice of fuels in vehicles

Green Car Congress

JANUARY 25, 2013

John DeCicco at the University of Michigan argues that to reduce transportation sector greenhouse gas emissions, the proper policy focus should be upstream in sectors that provide the fuel, rather than downstream on the choice of fuels in the automobile. In a new working paper, Prof. A parametric analysis by Barter et al.

Fuel

Fuel Supplies Transportation Climate Protection

State Department issues Draft Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement on Keystone XL Pipeline: climate change impacts

Green Car Congress

MARCH 2, 2013

Comparison of proposed Keystone XL route to previously proposed project segment. Aside from the potential construction and spill impacts of the pipeline, the scope of the climate change impacts have become the most contentious and politicized issue surrounding the pipeline. Source: Draft SEIS. Click to enlarge. Source: Draft SEIS.

Climate Change

Climate Change Oil-Sands Nebraska Climate

IEA working paper highlights potential role of natural gas in reducing global road transport CO2

Green Car Congress

NOVEMBER 13, 2010

The global natural gas vehicle fleet has grown rapidly in the last 10 years, but still represents less than 1% of global transport fuel consumption. Vehicle and fuel technology for natural gas is available today and relatively affordable, particularly in comparison with other alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs). Click to enlarge.

Gas

Gas Transportation CO2 Global

Perspective: US Needs to Transition to Hydrous Ethanol as the Primary Renewable Transportation Fuel

Green Car Congress

AUGUST 30, 2009

In 1975, General Ernesto Geisel, then-president of Brazil, ordered the country’s gasoline supply mixed with 10% ethanol. The level was raised to 25% over the next five years, which was intended to maintain a constant Brazilian gasoline supply for an ever-increasing demand. These were arguably the first flex-fuel vehicles.

Transportation

Transportation Fuel Renewable Gasoline-Electric

Study: even with high LDV electrification, low-carbon biofuels will be necessary to meet 80% GHG reduction target; “daunting” policy implications

Green Car Congress

JULY 3, 2015

The same highly electrified scenarios, however, could not satisfy 80% GHG-reduction targets, even assuming 80% decarbonized electricity and no growth in travel demand. Within the transportation sector, the two basic options for reducing petroleum use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are fuel-use reduction and fuel substitution.

Carbon

Carbon EPRI Climate Gasoline-Electric

Global Carbon Project: Global carbon emissions growth slows, but hits record high

Green Car Congress

DECEMBER 5, 2019

The findings are outlined in three new papers published in Earth System Science Data , Environmental Research Letters , and Nature Climate Change. By comparison, the average person in the United States is responsible for more than three-and-a-half times that amount. Peregon (2019), Nature Climate Change doi: 10.1038/s41558-019-0659-6.

Carbon

Carbon Global Emissions Climate Change

Hybrids vs EVs: where should government put its money

Baua Electric

JANUARY 20, 2024

Working on greener mobility has become a need for automakers around the world, given the status of global climate conditions in recent years. To accomplish this goal, while other technologies have emerged, EVs (electric vehicles) and hybrids have become the most well-known and broadly accepted, particularly in India. According to R.C.

Hybrid

Hybrid Suzuki Tax India

Separate MIT, IEA reports both outline major expansion in role of natural gas; caution on climate benefits

Green Car Congress

JUNE 10, 2011

The new report, part of the World Energy Outlook (WEO) 2011 series, examines the key factors that could result in a more prominent role for natural gas in the global energy mix, and the implications for other fuels, energy security and climate change.

MIT

MIT Gas Climate Gas-Electric

Tsinghua University provincial-level lifecycle study finds fuel-cycle criteria pollutants of EVs in China could be up to 5x those of natural gas vehicles due to China’s coal-dominant power mix

Green Car Congress

JANUARY 12, 2013

In regions where the share of coal-based electricity is relatively low, EVs can achieve substantial GHG reduction, the team reports in a paper in the ACS journal Environmental Science & Technology. The preferred fuel path(s) will depend to a great extent on their climate and environmental performance, which is of national concern.

Coal

Coal Pollution China Gas

Discussion Paper Suggests Mechanisms for Addressing Biofuel GHG Emissions Under Cap-and-Trade Schemes; Avoiding the Renewability Shortcut and Moving Toward Carbon Management for All Transportation Fuels

Green Car Congress

OCTOBER 9, 2009

Including biofuels under a cap-and-trade scheme could create a more complete carbon management framework for the transportation fuels sector, according to a new peer-reviewed discussion paper by Dr. John DeCicco. In particular, it fails to cover many GHG emissions during the production of biofuels and their feedstocks. DeCicco (2009).

Carbon

Carbon Emissions Renewable Transportation

Ford poll finds Europeans want freedom of car ownership, but worry about traffic, cost of driving, environment

Green Car Congress

NOVEMBER 14, 2012

The survey shows 74% use public transport, 37%share cars when making the same journey and 3% use formal car sharing schemes. 52% use public transport less than once a month or never. 53% say climate change is the world’s biggest problem. 52% use public transport less than once a month or never. Future mobility solutions.

Environment

Environment Ford Cost Of Cars

Setting New Standards for Clean Cars

Plug in America

OCTOBER 3, 2023

Improving vehicle technology and electric vehicles saves consumers money through reduced maintenance and fuel costs and improves air quality and public health. See our table below for a side-by-side comparison. Clean cars can improve air quality and public health Transportation is the largest source of carbon pollution in the U.S.

Standards

Standards Clean Cleaning Fuel Economy

U. Mich study: natural-gas-based ICE, BEV and FCV all show promise for environmental benefits relative to conventional ICE

Green Car Congress

AUGUST 19, 2014

In addition to ensuring the same energy source, the analysis was conducted such that the same functional unit and system boundary are assumed for all of the three mobility options, to facilitate a direct comparison of their respective environmental footprints. —Dai and Lastoskie. The system boundary for the LCA. Click to enlarge.

Gas

Gas Li-ion Gas-Electric Conversion

Geely invests in Carbon Recycling Intl.; vehicles fueled by methanol from CO2, water and renewable energy

Green Car Congress

JULY 8, 2015

Methanol-powered vehicles are one pillar of Geely Auto’s diversified new-energy strategy, which also encompasses ethanol, CNG, gasoline-electric hybrid, plug-in hybrid, pure-electric, and extended-range solutions. Click to enlarge. Currently the company has a 4,000 metric ton/year production capacity.

Renewable

Renewable Carbon Water Fuel

Study concludes that sugar cane-based biorefineries producing ethanol and electricity could power a global auto fleet of hybrids and EVs using only 4% of available cropland

Green Car Congress

OCTOBER 24, 2011

Number of cars (world and US), amount of gasoline consumed, amount of ethanol equivalent required for a neat ethanol fleet, ethanol and electricity to power hybrid fleet, and sugar cane area for hybrid fleet. l/100km) using gasoline as the fuel. Credit: ACS, Pacca and Moreira. Click to enlarge. km/liter (46 mpg US, or 5.1

Fleet

Fleet Available Hybrid Power

Fossil Fuels Renewable Energy and EV Modern Life

Setec Powerr

DECEMBER 5, 2022

Our principal goal should be to mitigate problems that are global in scale, such as climate change, biodiversity loss, virus transmission, and invasive species. In the United States, most of our use of fossil fuels is for transportation. A critical issue in decarbonization will also be the role of the electrical grid itself.

Renewable

Renewable Energy Fuel New York City

Global Fuel Economy Initiative launches second 3-year campaign; ICCT joins partnership

Green Car Congress

MAY 2, 2012

The Global Fuel Economy Initiative ( GFEI ) ( earlier post ) launched its second three-year effort to improve vehicle fuel economy around the world at the International Transport Forum in Leipzig. It also announced that a new partner—the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT)—has joined the effort.

Fuel Economy

Fuel Economy Economy Global Fuel

Ford researchers: global light-duty CO2 regulatory targets broadly consistent with 450 ppm stabilization

Green Car Congress

MAY 15, 2014

2050 well-to-wheels (WTW) transportation sector CO 2 emissions in 11 world regions for a number of vehicle types. The overall ethanol volume blend share in the gasoline/ethanol fuel pool grows from 14% (10% by energy) in 2020 to 30% (22% energy basis) in 2030. 15 years and to facilitate comparison with regulations.…

Light

Light Global CO2 Ford

Study on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Global Cities Highlights Importance of Geophysical and Technical Factors

Green Car Congress

SEPTEMBER 7, 2009

An international study of 10 global cities found that a balance of geophysical factors (climate, access to resources, and gateway status) and technical factors (power generation, urban design, and waste processing) determine the greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) attributable to cities. Transportation. Tonnes CO 2 e/capita. t e CO 2 /cap.

Emissions

Emissions Global Gas Los Angeles

Frost Sullivan Projects That About 80% of European Vehicle Sales Will Be in the 150 g/km CO2 Band by 2015; EVs as a Strategy of Premium Automakers

Green Car Congress

JANUARY 18, 2010

As a point of comparison, the US EPA’s proposed national CO 2 emissions standards for light-duty vehicles under section 202 (a) of the Clean Air Act would require these vehicles to meet an estimated combined average emissions level of 250 grams/mile of CO 2 —155.26 g/km—in model year 2016. Frost & Sullivan analyst Hariher Balasubramanian.

2015

2015 Downsizing CO2 Sale

California ARB mods to ZEV regulations for IVMs would result in ~1.9% drop in total ZEV/TZEV units 2018-2025; no impact on air quality requirements

Green Car Congress

OCTOBER 20, 2014

International cooperation will be necessary to resolve problems in maritime and air transport, but action on cars and trucks can be taken at a national or state level. International cooperation will be necessary to resolve problems in maritime and air transport, but action on cars and trucks can be taken at a national or state level.

2018

2018 California 2012 Plug-in

Must Read 40+ Electric Vehicle Interview Questions & Answers

Get Electric Vehicle

JUNE 7, 2023

The electric vehicle industry is growing at a high pace these days. Are you planning a job in electric vehicle industry? Then this Electric Vehicle Interview Questions and Answers will definitely help you out. There are different types of firms working in the electric vehicle domain.

Electric Vehicles

Electric Vehicles Vehicles Electric Electrical

Study suggests current levels of methane leakage would result in numerous decades of more rapid climate change from a shift to natural gas vehicles

Green Car Congress

APRIL 10, 2012

A) CNG light-duty cars vs. gasoline cars; (B) CNG heavy-duty vehicles vs. diesel vehicles; and (C) combined-cycle natural gas plants vs. supercritical coal plants using low-CH 4 coal. Recent reports in the scientific literature and popular press have produced confusion about the climate implications of natural gas. Click to enlarge.

Climate Change

Climate Change Climate Gas Coal

Up close and personal with Volkswagen’s e-Golf carbon offset project: Garcia River Forest

Green Car Congress

JUNE 8, 2015

In 2014, Volkswagen of America announced that starting with the launch of the zero-tailpipe emissions battery-electric 2015 e-Golf ( earlier post ), it would invest in projects to offset the carbon emissions created from the e-Golf on a full lifecycle basis: production, distribution and up to approximately 36,000 miles (57,936 km) of driving.

Carbon

Carbon Personal Store Emissions

The 80-20 Rule

Plug In Partners

JULY 18, 2008

Take care of that 20% with a small, efficient gasoline engine that runs at its optimum speed. However, 70% of vehicles can apparently be fueled with no increase of electrical capacity. This post from Climate Progress deals very nicely with a lot of them. Why is fueling a PHEV from coal electricity better than gasoline ?

EPRI

EPRI Li-ion Ni-Li PHEV

Naysayer Alert – the hydrogen red herring

My Electric Car

AUGUST 21, 2020

Proponents believe such a car could be easily refuelled with hydrogen and assumed it would have greater range than a pure all-electric car. Little seems developed in any wide commercial sense and certainly not to the extent of the pure electric car. It is important to realize that a fuel cell car is actually an electric car.

Hydrogen

Hydrogen Petrol Gas-Electric Lithium Ion

Road Test: 2021 Hyundai Palisade Calligraphy AWD

Clean Fleet Report

AUGUST 12, 2021

The Blue Link telematics allows for remote setting of the climate control, locking and unlocking the doors, Find My Car and other convenience features. Three-Row SUV Comparison. As part of these events we may be offered free transportation, lodging or meals. Road Test: 2020 Ford Explorer Hybrid.

Hyundai

Hyundai Fuel Economy SUV Fleet

Study finds drone-based delivery could reduce GHG emissions and energy use in the transportation sector, if deployed sensibly

Green Car Congress

FEBRUARY 16, 2018

New research by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), Carnegie Mellon University, SRI International and the University of Colorado at Boulder shows that drone-based delivery could reduce greenhouse gas emissions and energy use in the transportation sector. An open-access paper on the research appears in Nature Communications.

Emissions

Emissions Transportation Energy Gas-Electric

Road Test: 2021 GMC Sierra 1500 Duramax 4WD Crew Cab AT4 CarbonPro

Clean Fleet Report

MARCH 30, 2021

The electric-assisted steering had good road feel with responsiveness and little body roll in most cornering situations. Our Sierra AT4 also was equipped with the trailering package that included a trailer brake controller, jackknife alert and trailer electrical hook-ups. Clean Fleet Report. Upscale Interior. A high-end look.

Sierra

Sierra GMC Fuel Economy MPG

Study finds climate impact of long distance trip can vary by factor of 10 depending upon mode, efficiency and occupancy

Green Car Congress

JUNE 27, 2013

GWP100 weighted specific climate impact (g CO 2 -eq per pkm) as a function of vehicle occupancy. A team from Austria and Norway has found that the climate impact from a long-distance trip (500–1,000 km, or 310–621 miles) can easily vary by a factor of 10 per passenger depending on mode choice, vehicle efficiency, and occupancy.

Climate

Climate Diesel Emissions Climate Change

Road Test: 2021 Lexus NX 300h F Sport Black Line Special Edition

Clean Fleet Report

AUGUST 27, 2021

The all-wheel drive 2021 NX 300h is powered by the Lexus Hybrid Drive system, a parallel hybrid system where the electric motor can power the car by itself for short distances, the gas engine can power the car by itself, or they can power the car together. EV runs solely on electricity for about a half mile at no more than 25 miles per hour.

Lexus

Lexus Fuel Economy Hybrid MPG

IEA World Energy Outlook view on the transport sector to 2035; passenger car fleet doubling to almost 1.7B units, driving oil demand up to 99 mb/d; reconfirming the end of cheap oil

Green Car Congress

NOVEMBER 13, 2011

Under the WEO 2011 central scenario, oil demand rises from 87 million barrels per day (mb/d) in 2010 to 99 mb/d in 2035, with all the net growth coming from the transport sector in emerging economies. The number of people without access to electricity remained unacceptably high at 1.3 The passenger vehicle fleet doubles to almost 1.7

Oil

Oil Transportation Cheap Fleet

Can Flow Batteries Finally Beat Lithium?

Cars That Think

DECEMBER 24, 2023

As she drives her electric vehicle to her mother’s house, Monique’s battery gauge indicates that it’s time to reenergize. Flow batteries are safe, stable, long-lasting, and easily refilled, qualities that suit them well for balancing the grid, providing uninterrupted power, and backing up sources of electricity.

Lithium Ion

Lithium Ion Batteries Battery Li-ion

Using the PHEV (Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle) to Transition Society Seamlessly and Profitably From Fossil Fuel to 100% Renewable Energy

Green Car Congress

JULY 17, 2015

The PHEV (Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), a subset of the electric car, combines a primary electric motor with a much smaller back-up engine fueled with a hydrocarbon/biofuel mix. (In In this paper PHEV refers solely to the long-range PHEV of 60 miles (100 km) electric-only range.) It is much more than that.

PHEV

PHEV Plug-in Renewable Energy

Profile: Li-ion Provider Compact Power, Inc. Focusing on the Automotive and Vehicle Markets

Green Car Congress

FEBRUARY 19, 2009

CPI) shortly after GM selected CPI and its parent LG Chem as the provider for the Li-ion batteries for the Extended Range Electric Vehicle (E-REV) Chevy Volt. (GM Right now that is not that big of a deal because most houses don’t have the electrical infrastructure to support a 10 minute fast charge. Click to enlarge. “ Earlier post.).

Li-ion

Li-ion Power Powered Market

EEA report: EVs are better for climate and air quality

ICCT LCA study finds only battery and hydrogen fuel-cell EVs have potential to be very low-GHG passenger vehicle pathways

Responsible Battery Coalition and U Michigan launch study to compare electric and gas vehicle lifetime costs

Emissions Analytics argues that current Pareto-efficient solution for decarbonization would be hybrids, not BEVs, based on do-no-harm

Study finds GHG emissions from corn ethanol now 46% lower than gasoline

Rice study finds using natural gas for electricity and heating, not transportation, more effective in reducing GHGs

Ninth annual Green Innovation Index finds California light-duty vehicle emissions spike; major challenge to 2030 climate goals

EPA annual inventory shows US GHG up 3.1% from 2017-2018

PSI team develops web tool for consumers to compare environmental impact of passenger cars in detail

DeCicco: Transportation GHG reduction policy should focus upstream on fuel supply rather than downstream on choice of fuels in vehicles

State Department issues Draft Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement on Keystone XL Pipeline: climate change impacts

IEA working paper highlights potential role of natural gas in reducing global road transport CO2

Perspective: US Needs to Transition to Hydrous Ethanol as the Primary Renewable Transportation Fuel

Study: even with high LDV electrification, low-carbon biofuels will be necessary to meet 80% GHG reduction target; “daunting” policy implications

Global Carbon Project: Global carbon emissions growth slows, but hits record high

Hybrids vs EVs: where should government put its money

Separate MIT, IEA reports both outline major expansion in role of natural gas; caution on climate benefits

Tsinghua University provincial-level lifecycle study finds fuel-cycle criteria pollutants of EVs in China could be up to 5x those of natural gas vehicles due to China’s coal-dominant power mix

Discussion Paper Suggests Mechanisms for Addressing Biofuel GHG Emissions Under Cap-and-Trade Schemes; Avoiding the Renewability Shortcut and Moving Toward Carbon Management for All Transportation Fuels

Ford poll finds Europeans want freedom of car ownership, but worry about traffic, cost of driving, environment

Setting New Standards for Clean Cars

U. Mich study: natural-gas-based ICE, BEV and FCV all show promise for environmental benefits relative to conventional ICE

Geely invests in Carbon Recycling Intl.; vehicles fueled by methanol from CO2, water and renewable energy

Study concludes that sugar cane-based biorefineries producing ethanol and electricity could power a global auto fleet of hybrids and EVs using only 4% of available cropland

Fossil Fuels Renewable Energy and EV Modern Life

Global Fuel Economy Initiative launches second 3-year campaign; ICCT joins partnership

Ford researchers: global light-duty CO2 regulatory targets broadly consistent with 450 ppm stabilization

Study on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Global Cities Highlights Importance of Geophysical and Technical Factors

Frost Sullivan Projects That About 80% of European Vehicle Sales Will Be in the 150 g/km CO2 Band by 2015; EVs as a Strategy of Premium Automakers

California ARB mods to ZEV regulations for IVMs would result in ~1.9% drop in total ZEV/TZEV units 2018-2025; no impact on air quality requirements

Must Read 40+ Electric Vehicle Interview Questions & Answers

Study suggests current levels of methane leakage would result in numerous decades of more rapid climate change from a shift to natural gas vehicles

Up close and personal with Volkswagen’s e-Golf carbon offset project: Garcia River Forest

The 80-20 Rule

Naysayer Alert – the hydrogen red herring

Road Test: 2021 Hyundai Palisade Calligraphy AWD

Study finds drone-based delivery could reduce GHG emissions and energy use in the transportation sector, if deployed sensibly

Road Test: 2021 GMC Sierra 1500 Duramax 4WD Crew Cab AT4 CarbonPro

Study finds climate impact of long distance trip can vary by factor of 10 depending upon mode, efficiency and occupancy

Road Test: 2021 Lexus NX 300h F Sport Black Line Special Edition

IEA World Energy Outlook view on the transport sector to 2035; passenger car fleet doubling to almost 1.7B units, driving oil demand up to 99 mb/d; reconfirming the end of cheap oil

Can Flow Batteries Finally Beat Lithium?

Using the PHEV (Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle) to Transition Society Seamlessly and Profitably From Fossil Fuel to 100% Renewable Energy

Profile: Li-ion Provider Compact Power, Inc. Focusing on the Automotive and Vehicle Markets

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