Carbon, Exhaust, Light and Universal

Researchers capture first images of CO2 emissions from commercial aircraft engine using chemical species tomography

Green Car Congress

SEPTEMBER 30, 2022

Researchers have used a novel near-infrared light imaging technique to capture the first cross-sectional images of carbon dioxide in the exhaust plume of a commercial jet engine. Image Credit: Gordon Humphries, University of Strathclyde. Image Credit: Abhishek Upadhyay, University of Strathclyde. m in diameter.

Commercial

Commercial Engine Emissions CO2

New process uses localized surface plasmons for room-temperature conversion of CO2 to CO

Green Car Congress

NOVEMBER 3, 2020

Researchers at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and their colleagues have demonstrated a room-temperature method that could significantly reduce carbon dioxide levels in fossil-fuel power plant exhaust, one of the main sources of carbon emissions in the atmosphere.

Conversion

Conversion CO2 Carbon Exhaust

Study finds engines emit exhaust nanoparticles even when not fueled during engine braking

Green Car Congress

JANUARY 19, 2014

Exhaust particle size distributions measured by ELPI (color map) and particle concentration measured by CPC (white line) during individual engine braking conditions (speed change from 32 km/h to 0 km/h). The exhaust sample was taken from the exhaust manifold. The exhaust sample was taken from the exhaust manifold.

Exhaust

Exhaust Engine Fuel Greece

Study suggests high-mileage light-duty fleets contribute higher emissions and emissions share than expected

Green Car Congress

MAY 4, 2016

A study by researchers from the University of Denver and the University of Puget Sound indicates that high-mileage light-duty fleets contribute higher emissions and emissions share than expected based on their actual numbers in the fleet. In their study, Bishop et al. Credit: ACS, Bishop et al. Click to enlarge. 6b00717.

Emissions

Emissions Fleet Light Taxi

CARB releases results of multi-year E15 study; multiple air quality benefits with slight reduction in fuel economy

Green Car Congress

JULY 18, 2022

The California Air Resources Board (CARB) has released the results of a multiyear study evaluating exhaust emissions from the use of California Reformulated Gasoline (CaRFG) that contains 15 volume percent ethanol (E15). California currently limits the ethanol content of gasoline to 10 percent. The study used two fuels—an E10 and E15.

Fuel Economy

Fuel Economy Economy Fuel Ozone

U Delaware team develops prototype efficient direct ammonia fuel cell for transportation

Green Car Congress

JULY 31, 2019

A team at the University of Delaware has demonstrated a direct ammonia fuel cell (DAFC) prototype with a peak power density of 135 mW cm -2 at 80 ?C. Carbon-neutral fuels are needed for sustainable transportation to overcome the range and recharge limitations of batteries and the scale limitations of biofuels. —Zhao et al.

Delaware

Delaware Transportation Fuel Hydrogen

ICCT-sponsored study of in-use testing of 3 Tier2-Bin5, CA LEV-II light-duty diesels finds wide variation of emissions against the limits

Green Car Congress

JUNE 2, 2014

In-use testing of three light duty diesel vehicles—certified to US-EPA Tier2-Bin5 and California LEV-II ULEV emissions limits— found a wide variation in real world emissions performance relative to the regulatory limits. Kappanna (2014) “ In-use emissions testing of light-duty diesel vehicles in the US ”. diesels and one 3.0L

Diesel

Diesel Emissions Light Los Angeles

Monash study on solar-driven electrolysis for green hydrogen production cautions on life-cycle emissions and EROI

Green Car Congress

AUGUST 23, 2021

Researchers at Monash University in Australia have conducted a lifecycle analysis and net energy analysis (LCA/NEA) of a hypothetical large-scale solar-electrolysis plant for the production of green hydrogen. There is no immediate concern for copper resources, but the average ore grade is declining as higher grade deposits become exhausted.

Solar

Solar Hydrogen Emissions Production

When They Electrified Christmas

Cars That Think

DECEMBER 3, 2021

In much of the world, December is a month of twinkling lights. Whether for religious or secular celebrations, the variety and functionality of lights have exploded in recent years, abetted by cheap and colorful LEDs and compact electronics. But decorative lights aren't new. His tree now boasted 120 lights and more colors.

Light

Light Kansas City New York Washington

Dalhousie-led team develops single-atom platinum-gold catalyst; nearly 100-fold increases in efficiency

Green Car Congress

SEPTEMBER 25, 2018

A Dalhousie University-led team has developed a longer-lasting, higher-efficiency platinum catalyst. Platinum catalysts help deactivate exhaust gases from combustion engines. Usually, a platinum catalyst works less well over time as carbon monoxide molecules tightly bond to and block platinum from helping reactions along.

Universal

Universal Exhaust Carbon 2018

U Toronto team assess the climate trade-off between reduced CO2 and increased Black Carbon from GDI engines

Green Car Congress

JULY 14, 2016

is black carbon (BC)—a pollutant with large positive radiative forcing on the climate due to its ability to absorb incoming sunlight and reduce surface albedo on snow. A new study by a team at the University of Toronto has made a preliminary assessment of the climate trade-off (i.e., A significant fraction of the GDI PM 2.5

Climate

Climate Engine Carbon Fuel Economy

UC Berkeley study quantifies LD gasoline on-road emissions

Green Car Congress

NOVEMBER 27, 2013

Based on on-road measurements in their study, a team from the University of California Berkeley has estimated that, as of 2010, light-duty (LD) gasoline vehicles were responsible for 85% of CO; 18% of NO x ; 18% of organic aerosol (OA); and 6% of black carbon (BC) emissions from on-road motor vehicles in the United States.

Gasoline

Gasoline Emissions Diesel San Francisco

ARPA-E announces $98M in funding for 40 OPEN projects; two opposed-piston engines projects receive $10M total

Green Car Congress

NOVEMBER 16, 2018

Of those selected, approximately 43% of OPEN 2018 projects will be led by universities, 35% by small businesses, and the remainder by large businesses, non-profit organizations or federally funded research and development centers (FFRDCs). University of California, San Diego.

Engine

Engine San Diego Polymer Lithium Ion

Ricardo and Univ. of Brighton working on advanced combustion system for heavy-duty vehicles; CoolR features recuperated split-cycle with isothermal compression using cryogenic injection

Green Car Congress

JUNE 23, 2011

The recuperated engine uses isothermal compression via cryogenic injection to enable significant exhaust to compressed gas heat transfer. Ricardo and the University of Brighton will model and evaluate an advanced split-cycle combustion system aimed at substantially reducing the carbon emissions of heavy-duty vehicles.

Exhaust

Exhaust Concept Vehicles Engine

DOE awards nearly $55M to advance fuel efficient vehicle technologies in support of EV Everywhere and SuperTruck

Green Car Congress

SEPTEMBER 18, 2015

Ultra-Light Door Design, Manufacturing and Demonstration (Area of Interest 2). This project will design, develop, and demonstrate an ultra- light hybrid composite door and utilize predictive engineering (PE) to identify robust material and process design cycles. Clemson University. The Curators of The University of Missouri.

Fuel

Fuel Carbon Fiber Lithium Ion Vehicles

Ricardo advancing with two novel heavy-duty vehicle technologies: cryogenic split-cycle engine and microwave fuel reforming

Green Car Congress

SEPTEMBER 4, 2013

The recuperated engine uses isothermal compression via cryogenic injection to enable significant exhaust to compressed gas heat transfer. Heavy duty vehicles, such as long haul trucks, represent a significant challenge in terms of the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions. Source: Neville Jackson. Click to enlarge. HeatWave II.

Engine

Engine Fuel Vehicles Waste

Ricardo to display functional integration prototype of ADEPT 48V “intelligent electrification” diesel

Green Car Congress

SEPTEMBER 9, 2014

Ricardo will display the first functional integration prototype of the Advanced Diesel Electric Powertrain (ADEPT) collaborative research project ( earlier post ) in public for the first time this week at the Low Carbon Vehicle Event (LCV 2014) in the UK. 48V Diesel Fuel Efficiency'

Diesel

Diesel Downsizing Lead Acid Gasoline-Electric

U Alberta study shows for the first time that sunlight causes chemical reactions in road dust; singlet oxygen

Green Car Congress

JANUARY 18, 2018

Researchers at the University of Alberta (Canada) have shown for the first time that road dust is photochemically active; i.e., sunlight causes chemical reactions in the dust. We found that when you shine light on road dust, it produces a reactive form of oxygen called singlet oxygen. —Sarah Styler, corresponding author.

Cape Verde

Cape Verde Niger Arizona Exhaust

Study finds catalyzed gasoline particulate filters effective at reducing particulate and PAH emissions from GDI engines

Green Car Congress

FEBRUARY 22, 2018

Top: Gravimetric PM mass, PM mass calculated based on the IPSD method, black carbon, and EC/OC emissions over the LA92 cycle. The found that using a GPF did not show any fuel economy and CO 2 emission penalties, while the emissions of total hydrocarbons (THC), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NOx) were generally reduced.

Gasoline

Gasoline Emissions Engine Fuel Economy

U Toronto study measures GDI emissions in urban near-road environment

Green Car Congress

FEBRUARY 5, 2016

In four campaigns over the year-long study, the team from the University of Toronto measured emissions 15 meters from the roadway, then converted the measurements to fuel-based emission factors (EFs). Hence, GDI PM mass loadings and chemical composition may vary depending on the measurement environment or exhaust conditioning.

Environment

Environment Emissions Exhaust 2014

Study finds biodiesel blend reduces total particle mass in emissions but may have greater adverse health effect per mass than diesel

Green Car Congress

OCTOBER 10, 2013

liter Volkswagen light-duty diesel engine and Klam dynamometer running at various throttle and brake settings over a 9-mode steady-state cycle to enable triplicate time-resolved measurement of particle number distributions with a scanning mobility particle sizer. In the experiments, they used a 4-cylinder, 1.9-liter —Fukagawa et al.

B0

B0 Diesel Emissions Exhaust

DOE to award up to $137M for SuperTruck II, Vehicle Technology Office programs

Green Car Congress

AUGUST 16, 2016

These trucks haul 80% of goods in the United States and use about 28 billion gallons of fuel per year, accounting for around 22% of total transportation energy usage—presenting a significant opportunity for carbon emissions reduction and energy savings for a key segment of the US transportation sector. Ohio State University.

Vehicles

Vehicles Plug-in Lithium Ion Universal

Researchers use LCLS to get real-time view of chemical reaction; important insight into how catalysts work

Green Car Congress

MARCH 15, 2013

Catalytic converters in cars, for example, reduce emissions by converting exhaust to less toxic compounds. In the LCLS experiment, the scientists shot the crystal’s surface with a pulse from a conventional laser, which caused carbon monoxide molecules to begin to break away. We never expected to see this state ,” Nilsson said. “

Insight

Insight Universal Denmark Convert

SLAC X-ray laser provides first glimpse of a chemical bond being born; implications for more efficient chemistry

Green Car Congress

FEBRUARY 13, 2015

The experiments took place at SLAC’s Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS), a DOE Office of Science User Facility. The researchers used LCLS to study the CO oxidation reaction—the same reaction that neutralizes carbon monoxide (CO) from car exhaust in a catalytic converter. This is the very core of all chemistry.

Universal

Universal Carbon Exhaust Insight

US DOE awards more than $175M to 40 projects for advanced vehicle research and development

Green Car Congress

AUGUST 10, 2011

This project will optimize fuel-based control of novel combustion strategies in light- and heavy-duty vehicles to enable diesel-like efficiencies with ultra-low engine-out emissions. Light-weighting materials. Increased availability of low cost carbon fiber can enable vehicle weight reduction and improvement in fuel economy.

Carbon Fiber

Carbon Fiber Lithium Ion Li-ion Vehicles

China and Norway Lead the World’s EV Switchover

Cars That Think

MARCH 16, 2024

Though it’s clear that ess carbon in the atmosphere coming from tailpipe exhaust is a win for the planet, not everyone shares the belief that all-electric transportation is the panacea it is chalked up to be. Rapson, a professor at the University of California, Davis. “It Downsides to the forecasts But not all skies are sunny.

Norway

Norway China Iceland Canada

Light-powered nano-bio hybrid organisms consume CO2, create plastics and fuels

Green Car Congress

JUNE 11, 2019

University of Colorado Boulder researchers have developed nanobio-hybrid organisms capable of using airborne carbon dioxide and nitrogen to produce a variety of plastics and fuels, a promising first step toward low-cost carbon sequestration and eco-friendly manufacturing for chemicals. Ding et al. —Ding et al.

Light

Light CO2 Power Powered

Government of Canada investing $6.5M in five next-generation auto R&D projects; total project value of $16M

Green Car Congress

AUGUST 30, 2011

These university-industry partnerships will receive more than C$16 million (US$16.4 Partners: Simon Fraser University and Future Vehicle Technologies Inc. This project builds on an existing collaboration between Simon Fraser University and Future Vehicle Technologies Inc. million) in total project support. This includes C$6.5

Canada

Canada Auto Universal Convert

NYSERDA awards $4.6M to 17 transportation projects; support for Syracuse U supercritical diesel injection project

Green Car Congress

FEBRUARY 9, 2011

Among the awards is support for a Syracuse University (with BorgWarner of Ithaca) project to prepare, inject and combust supercritical (SC) diesel fuel. Stony Brook University seeks to improve vehicle fuel economy with a thermoelectric generator that would capture energy previously lost through heat exhaust. Earlier post.).

Diesel

Diesel Transportation New York Pollution

Dearman-led consortium awarded $3.1M to develop waste-heat-recovery system using liquid air engine

Green Car Congress

APRIL 23, 2014

The tenth competition under the Low Carbon Vehicles Innovation Platform’s integrated delivery program (IDP), IDP10 is targeting the building of an integrated low-carbon-vehicle innovation chain, from the science base, through collaborative R&D to fleet-level demonstration. million (US$3.12 Earlier post. ).

Waste

Waste Engine Land Rover Transportation

CPT and Eminox to collaborate on development of retrofit electric supercharging and aftertreatment solutions for heavy-duty vehicles

Green Car Congress

OCTOBER 8, 2015

Having better control over the combustion process reduces the emission load on the exhaust aftertreatment systems. Eminox SCRT technology can significantly reduce harmful diesel exhaust gases, particularly in urban operating conditions. —Andy Dickinson. Earlier post.)

Vehicles

Vehicles Exhaust Emissions Diesel

Study Finds Controlling Soot May Be Fastest Method to Reduce Arctic Ice Loss and Global Warming; Second-Leading Cause of Global Warming After CO2

Green Car Congress

JULY 29, 2010

Jacobson at Stanford University. Results of the study suggest that soot is second only to carbon dioxide in contributing to global warming. Jacobson found that the combination of the two types of soot is the second-leading cause of global warming after carbon dioxide. Particle traps filter out soot particles from exhaust fumes.

Global

Global Ozone CO2 Pollution

Study of emissions from CNG- and gasoline-fueled autorickshaws suggests measurements and data, not assumptions, should drive policy

Green Car Congress

FEBRUARY 20, 2011

mass, B: organic carbon fraction (OC/PM), C: elemental carbon fraction (EC/PM)), global warming commitment (D: GWC-Kyoto, E: GWC-All), and F: fuel consumption. Fuel-based particulate matter emission factors (A: PM 2.5 Credit: ACS, Reynolds et al. Click to enlarge. The mean fuel-based PM 2.5 g kg -1 (6.2-26.7)) g kg -1 (0.3-0.9))

Gasoline

Gasoline Emissions Fuel India

Study finds use of high cetane fuel reduces all primary pollutants under advanced diesel combustion mode

Green Car Congress

APRIL 24, 2011

THC and CO as well as NO x and PM—according to research by a team from The Pennsylvania State University. However, operation in the HECC mode, or any other PCCI mode, typically results in increased total hydrocarbons (THC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions and is limited to low and medium load operation. Lilik, André L.

Diesel

Diesel Pollution Fuel Emissions

Calls for an international 48V electrical standard for vehicles; looming WLTP implementation

Green Car Congress

DECEMBER 1, 2014

the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedures (WLTP). Until we have a really significant breakthrough with battery chemistry or fuel-cell technology, the high voltage approach to hybridization and pure battery electric vehicles will remain too expensive for universal application across high volume vehicle platforms.

Standards

Standards International Vehicles Hybrid

Researchers find isolated Pd atoms efficient low-temperature catalysts to convert CO in automotive exhaust

Green Car Congress

OCTOBER 8, 2014

alumina supports along with a small amount of lanthanum oxide can efficiently turn the carbon monoxide in automotive exhaust into carbon dioxide at temperatures as low as 40 ?Celsius, At low temperatures, carbon monoxide builds up on the catalyst, decreasing its efficiency. —Prof. Source: UNM.

Exhaust

Exhaust Convert New Mexico F-150

NSF and DOE form Partnership on Advanced Combustion Engines; goal 25-40% better LDV fuel economy and 55% BTE in heavy-duty engines; $12M in awards for FY 2012-2014

Green Car Congress

MAY 12, 2012

The high-level performance goals of the Partnership are a 25-40% improvement in fuel economy in a light-duty vehicle (LDV) and achieving 55% brake thermal efficiency (BTE) in heavy-duty engine systems. The potential is significant. catalytic) technologies to reduce toxic gas and particulate emissions.

Fuel Economy

Fuel Economy Engine Economy 2014

Comparative study finds that B20 increases emission rates of a number of pollutants in both light- and medium-duty diesel engines at idle

Green Car Congress

OCTOBER 20, 2012

Panels show (a) PM 2.5 , (b) elemental carbon (EC), (c) NO x , (d) CO, (e) formaldehyde, and (f) sum of target VOCs. A new study led by researchers at the University of Michigan compared regulated and unregulated emissions from both light-duty passenger car (1.7 Emission rates for the 1.7 L engines at idle. Click to enlarge.

Pollution

Pollution Diesel Emissions Engine

ALABC showcased three 48V hybrid demonstrators at AABC featuring advanced lead-carbon batteries

Green Car Congress

FEBRUARY 10, 2015

The Advanced Lead Acid Battery Consortium (ALABC) last month showcased three hybrid electric concept vehicles resulting from its R&D program that demonstrate the real-world potential of lead-carbon batteries in 48V architectures. All three vehicles feature advanced lead-carbon batteries, also known as carbon-enhanced lead-acid batteries.

Carbon

Carbon Lead Acid Hybrid Batteries

University of Manchester leading £2.7M project to image jet engine emissions; pinning down some of the benefits of novel biofuels

Green Car Congress

DECEMBER 1, 2011

The University of Manchester (UK) is leading the £2.7 million) FLITES (Fibre-Laser Imaging of Gas Turbine Exhaust Species) research project, which aims to establish the capability to map several exhaust species from airplanes using tomographic imaging. million (US$4.24

Universal

Universal Engine Emissions Exhaust

Perspective: The Role of Offsets in Climate Change Legislation

Green Car Congress

MARCH 6, 2010

If a cap-and-trade program includes offsets, regulated entities have the opportunity to purchase the “emission credits” generated by carbon offset projects to help them meet their compliance obligations. In this way, offsets would complement the more traditional emissions trading that can occur between two covered sources.

Climate Change

Climate Change Climate Emissions 2008

Study finds 2008 recession contributed to increase in age of US LDV fleet, slowing of emission reductions

Green Car Congress

DECEMBER 29, 2014

The global economic recession of 2008—which severely depressed light-duty vehicle sales—resulted in an increase in the age of the light-duty vehicle fleet in the US that likely slowed the rate of decrease of fleet average emissions, according to a study by Gary Bishop and Donald Stedman at the University of Denver.

2008

2008 Fleet Los Angeles Tulsa

Tianjin team proposes reactivity controlled turbulent jet ignition to extend EGR tolerance and improve performance; ammonia potential

Green Car Congress

SEPTEMBER 5, 2022

Researchers at Tianjin University have proposed a reactivity controlled turbulent jet ignition (RCTJI) based on a newly air-assisted pre-chamber turbulent jet ignition with a scavenging function to improve the reactivity in the pre-chamber. EGR dilution can make the use of a three-way catalytic converter (TWC) possible.

Engine

Engine Fuel Exhaust Gasoline-Electric

Study finds fleet switch from PFI to GDI engines will result in net reduction in global warming

Green Car Congress

MAY 12, 2017

A new study quantifying emissions from a fleet of gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines and port fuel injection (PFI) engines finds that the measured decrease in CO 2 emissions from GDIs is much greater than the potential climate forcing associated with higher black carbon emissions from GDI engines. —Saliba et al. versus 6.3 ± 1.1

Fleet

Fleet Engine Global Fuel Economy

Researchers capture first images of CO2 emissions from commercial aircraft engine using chemical species tomography

New process uses localized surface plasmons for room-temperature conversion of CO2 to CO

Study finds engines emit exhaust nanoparticles even when not fueled during engine braking

Study suggests high-mileage light-duty fleets contribute higher emissions and emissions share than expected

CARB releases results of multi-year E15 study; multiple air quality benefits with slight reduction in fuel economy

U Delaware team develops prototype efficient direct ammonia fuel cell for transportation

ICCT-sponsored study of in-use testing of 3 Tier2-Bin5, CA LEV-II light-duty diesels finds wide variation of emissions against the limits

Monash study on solar-driven electrolysis for green hydrogen production cautions on life-cycle emissions and EROI

When They Electrified Christmas

Dalhousie-led team develops single-atom platinum-gold catalyst; nearly 100-fold increases in efficiency

U Toronto team assess the climate trade-off between reduced CO2 and increased Black Carbon from GDI engines

UC Berkeley study quantifies LD gasoline on-road emissions

ARPA-E announces $98M in funding for 40 OPEN projects; two opposed-piston engines projects receive $10M total

Ricardo and Univ. of Brighton working on advanced combustion system for heavy-duty vehicles; CoolR features recuperated split-cycle with isothermal compression using cryogenic injection

DOE awards nearly $55M to advance fuel efficient vehicle technologies in support of EV Everywhere and SuperTruck

Ricardo advancing with two novel heavy-duty vehicle technologies: cryogenic split-cycle engine and microwave fuel reforming

Ricardo to display functional integration prototype of ADEPT 48V “intelligent electrification” diesel

U Alberta study shows for the first time that sunlight causes chemical reactions in road dust; singlet oxygen

Study finds catalyzed gasoline particulate filters effective at reducing particulate and PAH emissions from GDI engines

U Toronto study measures GDI emissions in urban near-road environment

Study finds biodiesel blend reduces total particle mass in emissions but may have greater adverse health effect per mass than diesel

DOE to award up to $137M for SuperTruck II, Vehicle Technology Office programs

Researchers use LCLS to get real-time view of chemical reaction; important insight into how catalysts work

SLAC X-ray laser provides first glimpse of a chemical bond being born; implications for more efficient chemistry

US DOE awards more than $175M to 40 projects for advanced vehicle research and development

China and Norway Lead the World’s EV Switchover

Light-powered nano-bio hybrid organisms consume CO2, create plastics and fuels

Government of Canada investing $6.5M in five next-generation auto R&D projects; total project value of $16M

NYSERDA awards $4.6M to 17 transportation projects; support for Syracuse U supercritical diesel injection project

Dearman-led consortium awarded $3.1M to develop waste-heat-recovery system using liquid air engine

CPT and Eminox to collaborate on development of retrofit electric supercharging and aftertreatment solutions for heavy-duty vehicles

Study Finds Controlling Soot May Be Fastest Method to Reduce Arctic Ice Loss and Global Warming; Second-Leading Cause of Global Warming After CO2

Study of emissions from CNG- and gasoline-fueled autorickshaws suggests measurements and data, not assumptions, should drive policy

Study finds use of high cetane fuel reduces all primary pollutants under advanced diesel combustion mode

Calls for an international 48V electrical standard for vehicles; looming WLTP implementation

Researchers find isolated Pd atoms efficient low-temperature catalysts to convert CO in automotive exhaust

NSF and DOE form Partnership on Advanced Combustion Engines; goal 25-40% better LDV fuel economy and 55% BTE in heavy-duty engines; $12M in awards for FY 2012-2014

Comparative study finds that B20 increases emission rates of a number of pollutants in both light- and medium-duty diesel engines at idle

ALABC showcased three 48V hybrid demonstrators at AABC featuring advanced lead-carbon batteries

University of Manchester leading £2.7M project to image jet engine emissions; pinning down some of the benefits of novel biofuels

Perspective: The Role of Offsets in Climate Change Legislation

Study finds 2008 recession contributed to increase in age of US LDV fleet, slowing of emission reductions

Tianjin team proposes reactivity controlled turbulent jet ignition to extend EGR tolerance and improve performance; ammonia potential

Study finds fleet switch from PFI to GDI engines will result in net reduction in global warming

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