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PNNL study outlines requirements for grid storage, reviews four electrochemical energy storage systems: vanadium redox flow, Na-beta, Li-ion and lead-carbon

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Classification of potential electrical storage for stationary applications. Lead-carbon batteries are an evolving technology born from the traditional lead-acid battery, commonly used for traditional automobiles and back-up generators. Credit: ACS, Yang et al. Click to enlarge. The process reverses during charge.

Li-ion 231