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PNNL study outlines requirements for grid storage, reviews four electrochemical energy storage systems: vanadium redox flow, Na-beta, Li-ion and lead-carbon

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published in the ACS journal Chemical Reviews , reviews in detail four stationary storage systems considered the most promising candidates for electrochemical energy storage: vanadium redox flow; sodium-beta alumina membrane; lithium-ion; and lead-carbon batteries. Single-cell and tubular design of a Na-beta battery.

Li-ion 231
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NETL investigating researching chemistries for large-scale battery- and supercapacitor-based grid energy storage systems

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This includes research on appropriate anodes, cathodes, and electrolytes for magnesium (Mg)-, sodium (Na)-, and lithium (Li)-based batteries and novel transition metal oxide- and nitride-based supercapacitor electrode materials. Sodium is another element that is less expensive than lithium. Novel cathodes and anodes.