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PNNL study outlines requirements for grid storage, reviews four electrochemical energy storage systems: vanadium redox flow, Na-beta, Li-ion and lead-carbon

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Classification of potential electrical storage for stationary applications. To smooth out the intermittency of renewable energy production, low-cost electrical energy storage (EES) will become necessary. Carrying charges, operation and maintenances (O&M), and replacement costs are not included.

Li-ion 231