its a lot cheaper than owning a car in Amsterdam, if you are too lazy to ride a bike like everyone else does :)

Still, very green.

The reciprocating internal combustion engine (RICE) has been, and continues to be, analyzed and evaluated utilizing thermodynamic principles and tools. Rather than a thermodynamic system, however, the RICE can be more accurately viewed as a mechanical system with mechanical work being transformed into the cylinder gas internal energy, and vise versa. When so viewed, analysis and evaluation of the RICE is greatly simplified. Moreover, when the RICE is evaluated as a mechanical system, it is possible to design RICE that achieves significant increases in efficiency over existing engines.

Traditionally, the equivalent air cycle of RICE is modeled with a pressure-volume diagram. From the perspective of power production, however, the equivalent air cycle should be modeled by a plot of total internal energy E versus total volume V. More specifically, during an adiabatic compression process 1-2, a moving piston compresses cylinder gas from V1 to V2 doing compression work to change E1 to E2. with E2 = E1 (V1/V2)k-1 with E1 equal to the average ambient T1 times the constant volume specific heat cv. This equation E2 = E1 (V1/V2)k-1 is directly derived from the mechanical work done when cylinder volume changes from V1 to V2 without involving absolute temperature T. Therefore it can be applied to real gas.

For a constant volume combustion process 2-3, at point 3, V3 = V2, E3 = E2 + Q. For a constant-pressure combustion, at point 3, E3 = E2 + Q/k and V3 = V2(E3/E2). For a limited-pressure combustion process 2-3a-3b, E3a = E2 + x and E3b = E3a + y with x + yk = Q and E3b/E3a = V3/V2. E3a and E3b are obtained by solving these two equations.

An expansion process begins at point 3b, with E4 = E3b(V3/V4)k-1. The indicated fuel conversion efficiency is equal to (E2 + Q – E4)/(E2 + Q).

It should be noted that E4 is determined by expansion ratio and E2 is determined by compression ratio. Compression ratio and expansion ratio are independent of each other. For more complete fuel combustion, a high compression ratio is chosen to obtain a compression temperature just below the fresh point of the fuel/air mixture. An appropriate fuel equivalence ratio is chosen to limit the combustion temperature for avoid NOx formation and excessive heat loss to coolant. A high expansion ratio is chosen for reducing E4

For each energy transformation process, cylinder volume determines the cylinder gas total internal energy and a plot of E-V can be produced. This fact has greatly simplified the reciprocating internal combustion engine in theory and practice. After the combination of compression ratio, fuel equivalence ratio, and expansion ratio has been chosen, the only thing a engine designer has to do is to shorten the combustion time as much as practical for achieve the maximum possible fuel efficiency with minimum emissions.

It is hoped that those readers thinking about all electric vehicles would comment on the E-V plot and the internal energy balance for computing indicated fuel conversion efficiency.

Engineer-Poet

The E-V plot computed by E2 = E1(V2/V1)k-1 and using internal energy balance for computing fuel energy conversion efficiency could double fuel efficiency. Then there is no immediate need for electric vehicles.If you are interested, I will be more than glad to sent you more information.

The 2-wheel Harley-Davidson are perfect examples.